Use of Compost as an Erosion Control Technique

Composting of agricultural by-products, such as animal manure, has long been viewed as a viable treatment alternative. Composting stabilizes the material, reduces the bulk, and eliminates most if not all of the pathogenic organisms.

One of the limits on large-scale composting has been the lack of markets for the composted material. The following references, while relating to composting of bio-solids (sludge), make a good case for the use of compost in erosion control activities.

Title: Erosion is reducing the productivity of some soils
Book Title: The Second RCA Appraisal: Soil, Water, and Related Resources on Nonfederal Land in the United States. Analysis of Condition and Trends.
Publisher: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture; RCA
Pages: 25-50
Doc. #: NOR.SO.ER.1.1
Keywords: non-compost, soil, erosion, agriculture, economics

Author(s): Charles Berry
Year: 1977
Title: Initial Response of Pine Seedlings and Weeds to Dried Sewage Sludge in Rehabilitation of an Eroded Forest Site.
Doc. #: BIN.RC.FO.1.4; BIN.RC.FO.1.5
Keywords: pine, pinus, Ambrosia artemisifolia, Digitaria sanguinalis, reclamation, erosion, rehabilitation, southeast
Abstract: Dried sewage sludge was applied at rates of 0, 17, 34, and 69 metric tons/ha on a badly eroded forest site in the Piedmont region of northeast GA. Production of weed biomass varied directly with amount of sludge applied. High mortality of pine seedlings on plots receiving heavy sludge applications was attributed to competition from weeds whose growth had been stimulated.

Author(s): Charles Berry
Year: 1981
Title: Sewage Sludge Aids Reclamation of Disturbed Forest Land in the Southeast
Magazine: Symposium of Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass Production. Sept. 16-18, Pittsburgh, PA.
Doc. #: BIN.RC.FO.1.1; BIN.RC.FO.1.2; BIN.RC.FO.1.3
Keywords: reclamation, disturbed land, southeast, mine spoils, borrow pits, erosion, silt

Author(s): W.C. Carter
Year: 1974
Title: The Bangkok composting plant
Magazine: The 1974 Australian Waste Management and Control Conference
Editor(s): N. Y. Kirov
Publisher: Kingsway Printers Pty. Limited
City: Caringbah, Australia
Pages: 137-139
Doc. #: MSC.TP.GE.1.25
Keywords: MSW, process, operation, product, quality, maturity, soil, water holding, tilth, nutrients, humus, microorganisms, erosion, stabilization
Abstract: This paper deals briefly with the quantity and characteristics of the refuse, the benefits derived from fermented compost, comments on the existing plant together with outline details, and presents a flow diagram of the four plants currently being commissioned.

Author(s): General Electric Co.
Year: 1975
Title: Composting processes
Book Title: Solid Waste Management: Technology Assessment
Publisher: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.
City: New York
Pages: 175-210
Doc. #: GEC.TP.GE.1.13
Keywords: MSW, process, principles, operations, concerns, economics, product, use, soil, stabilization, erosion, moisture holding
Misc: history of various processes

Author(s): S. de Haan
Year: 1981
Title: Results of municipal waste compost research over more than fifty years at the Institute for Soil Fertility at Haren/Groningen, the Netherlands
Journal: Neth. J. Agriculture Science
Volume: 29
Pages: 49-61
Doc. #: MSC.RE.AG.1.1
Keywords: MSW, sewage sludge, co-compost, product, quality, contaminants, organics, metals, micronutrients, macronutrients, soil, OM, plants, growth, nutrients, use, reclamation, agriculture, mulch, erosion
Abstract: Results of research on municipal waste compost as an organic fertilizer or soil amendment at the Institute for Soil Fertility since the 1920's are reviewed.

Author(s): L.F. Diaz
Author(s): C.G. Golueke
Author(s): G.M. Savage
Year: 1986
Title: Energetics of compost production and utilization
Magazine: BioCycle
Pages: 49-54
Doc. #: MSC.TP.GE.1.20
Keywords: MSW, SWM, sewage sludge, process, economics, operation, windrow, static pile, enclosed, product, quality, use, soil, erosion

Author(s): G.D. Jennings
Author(s): A.R. Jarrett
Year: 1985
Title: Laboratory evaluation of mulches in reducing erosion
Journal: Transactions of the ASAE
Volume: 28
Pages: 1466-1470
Doc. #: WON.SO.ER.1.2
Keywords: non-compost, straw, paper, wood, use, mulch, erosion, soil
Abstract: The effectiveness of various mulch materials and their application rates was examined for reducing soil erosion on disturbed sites prepared for revegetation . Eleven mulch treatments were applied to a Hagerstown silty clay loam soil on a two percent slope located under a rotating disc rainfall simulator applying rain at 135 mm/hr The treatments included straw at two rates, two sizes of bark chips, three commercially available materials (jute net, burlap, and Hold/Gro®, a woven paper and thread product) and two sizes of rocks, all of which were compared to a fallow or no mulch treatment.

The presence of the mulch treatments influenced the depths of runoff, the sediment concentrations and the erosion rates observed during the 10-min rainstorm events. The mulches which were porous and capable of holding or storing water, such as straw, bark, burlap and jute, yielded reduced runoff depths, lower sediment concentrations, and lower erosion rates than the mulches which could not absorb water. The rocks provided the least effective erosion control.

Author(s): Von H. Müller
Author(s): S. Riccabona
Year: 1984
Title: Reduction of soil erosion by the use of waste compost (In German)
Journal: Jahrgang
Volume: 36
Pages: 22-28
Doc. #: MSC.SO.ER.1.1
Keywords: MSW, use, erosion

Author(s): J. F. Parr
Author(s): R.H. Miller
Author(s): D. Colacicco
Year: 1984
Title: Utilization of organic materials for crop production in developed and developing countries
Book Title: Organic Farming: Current Technology and its Role in Sustainable Agriculture
Editor(s): D. M. Kral
Publisher: ASA, CSSA, and SSSA. ASA Publication No. 46
Pages: 83-96
Doc. #: BIC.AG.GE.1.4
Keywords: agricultural, MSW, sewage sludge, food, wood, OM, nutrients, soil, erosion, stabilization, moisture holding, porosity, tilth, use, agriculture

Author(s): A. Pfirter
Author(s): A. von Hirschheydt
Author(s): P. Ott
Author(s): H. Vogtmann
Year: 1981
Title: Composting: An Introduction to the Rational Use of Organic Waste
Publisher: Migro-S-Production
City: Solothurn, Switzerland
Doc. #: GEC.TP.GE.1.5
Keywords: agricultural, straw, manure, wood, bark, yard, leaf, P&P sludge, MSW, sewage sludge, biogenic, yard, process, principles, parameters, microorganisms, metabolism, operations, windrow, product, quality, maturity, use, horticulture, agriculture, soil, humus, OM. erosion, stabilization, nutrients
Misc: selections

Author(s): Raymond P. Poincelot
Title: Sustaining resources: Soil
Book Title: Toward a More Sustainable Agriculture
Publisher: AVI publishing Co., Inc.
City: Westport, CT
Pages: 116-161
Doc. #: BIC.SO.GE.1.1
Keywords: sewage sludge, septage, manure, agricultural, food, MSW, OM, soil, plants, growth, stabilization, nutrients, erosion, agriculture

Author(s): James H. Popenoe
Author(s): Roy W. Martin
Year: 1989
Title: An Evaluation of Compost and Fertilizer to Promote Revegetation of Rehabilitated Road Surfaces
Publisher: Resource Management Division, Redwood National Park
Doc. #: GEC.RC.FO.1.1
Keywords: use, reclamation, soil, erosion, stabilization, nutrients, macronutrients, OM, plants, growth, economics

Author(s): Michael H. Simpson
Year: 1987
Title: Economic overview of composting on the farm
Magazine: Proceedings: On-Farm Composting Conference
Pages: 60-68
Doc. #: AGC.EC.GE.1.1
Keywords: agricultural, manure, operation, economics, concerns, vectors, odor, soil, water holding, nutrients, erosion, use, agriculture

Author(s): David A. Sollenberger
Year: 1987
Title: Evaluation of Compost and Co-compost Materials for Highway Construction - Phase I
Publisher: California Department of Transportation
Doc. #: BIC.HO.GE.1.4
Keywords: MSW, sewage sludge, co-compost, use, erosion, landscape
Misc: Conclusion: need more information (i.e. quality standards) to establish safety guidelines before further study; use compost for construction of sound walls, safety barriers, ...

Author(s): Robert Steffen
Year: 1979
Title: The value of composted organic matter in building soil fertility
Magazine: Compost Science/Land Utilization
Volume: Sept/Oct
Pages: 34 - 37
Doc. #: AGC.SO.FE.1.1
Keywords: manure, OM, humus, soil, stabilization, nutrients, tilth, erosion, contaminants, metals, macronutrients, maturity

Author(s): E.M. Watkin
Author(s): J.E. Winch
Year: 1974
Title: Composted organic wastes, sewage sludges, and rock phosphate for the amelioration of acid uranium mine-tailings
Book Title: Proceedings of the International Conference on Land Waste Management. (meeting date 1973)
Editor(s): J. Tomlinson
Publisher: Agricultural Institute of Canada
City: Ottawa, Ont.
Pages: 48-56
Doc. #: MSC.RC.MM.1.1
Keywords: wood, MSW, sewage sludge, use, reclamation, erosion, long-term
Abstract: Rock phosphate, wood chip/municipal solid waste compost and sewage sludge were evaluated for establishment and long-term maintenance of vegetation for erosion and seepage control on acid (pH 1.5) uranium mine tailings. Rates of 34, 67, and 135 t/ha of softwood/municipal solid waste compost significantly increased shoot and root growth of Phalaris arundinacea L. cv Rise and Lotus corniculatus L. cv Empire when incorporated into tailings containing limestone and fertilizer.
Misc: Waste type: wood (softwood chips), MSW
Emphasis: reclamation
Plants: reed canarygrass, birdsfoot trefoil
Soils: uranium tailings
Experimental conditions: pots

Author(s): M.M. Deizman S. Mostaghimi, T.A. Dillaha, and C.D. Heatwole
Year: 1989
Title: Tillage effects on phosphorus losses from sludge-amended soils
Journal: J. Soil and Water Consv.
Volume: 44
Pages: 247-251
Doc. #: BIN.RU.LR.3.1
Keywords: sludge, no-till, phosphorus, runoff, water quality, simulated rainfall, bio-solids
Abstract: The impact of bio-solids application method and rate on the quantity of runoff from no-till and conventionally tilled fields was investigated on replicated plots using simulated rainfall. Anaerobically digested bio-solids were applied at rates sufficient to supply 0, 75, and 150 kg ha-1 of available N to field plots. These rates resulted in application of 0, 115, and 230 kg ha-1 of P. bio-solids were surface-applied to the no-till plots. On conventionally tilled plots, bio-solids were either surface-applied or incorporated to a depth of 10 to 15 cm. A total of 90 mm of rainfall at an intensity of 45 mm hr-1 was applied to the sixteen 0.01 ha plots. Runoff samples were collected at plot discharge points and analyzed for sediment and P contents. No-till practices greatly reduced runoff and sediment yields. Runoff and sediment yields decreased as bio-solids application rates increased for both tillage systems. Surface application of bio-solids resulted in higher concentrations and yields of P relative to incorporation. bio-solids addition reduced erosion and runoff, thereby causing sediment-bound and total P yields to be less from bio-solids-treated plots than from control plots.

Author(s): E.J. and D.W. Nelson Kladviko
Year: 1979
Title: Surface runoff from sludge-amended soils
Journal: J WPCF
Volume: 51
Pages: 100-110
Doc. #: BIN.RU.LR.3.1
Keywords: sludge, land application, nutrients, runoff, water quality, rainfall simulation, sediment, bio-solids
Abstract: This study determined the effect of varying rates of liquid bio-solids application and incorporation techniques on the amount of sediment, nutrients, and heavy metals in surface water during intense rainfall storms. Soil cores were extracted from the field after bio-solids application at rates of 0, 22.4, 56, and 89.4 Mg ha-1 and subjected to rainfall, using a laboratory-scale simulator. Application techniques included surface, rototilling, and disking. Sediment-bound nutrients accounted for most of the total nutrients lost from treated plots. Less than 1 percent of the bio-solids N and P added to soil cores was lost in runoff water. Nutrient concentrations were generally higher in runoff water and in sediment from bio-solids-treated soils than from untreated soils, but total nutrients delivered to surface waters may be less than from an untreated soil, due to reductions in soil erosion losses. Less sediment eroded from bio-solids-treated soil than from control soil. bio-solids that remained on the soil surface after dewatering were much more effective in decreasing sediment and nutrient losses by erosion than were bio-solids incorporated by rototilling or disking.

Author(s): R.J. Loch A. Costantini, G.A. Barry, and E. K. Best
Year: 1995
Title: Evaluation of the potential to dispose of sewage sludge. II. Potential for off-site movements of solids and solutes
Journal: Aust. J. Soil Res.
Volume: 33
Pages: 1053-1062
Doc. #: BIN.RU.LR.3.1; BIN.NI.LR.3.3
Keywords: sludge, pine, nitrate, ammonium, runoff, water quality, phosphorus, rainfall simulation, solutes, bio-solids
Abstract: This paper reports a study of the potential for off-site movements of pollutants from bio-solids broadcast onto the soil surface in Pinus plantations established on the coastal lowlands of southeast Queensland, Australia. Laboratory studies of size and settling velocity distributions of rainfall-wetted bio-solids showed that they are relatively coarse and non-erodible. Field rainfall simulation studies at three sites in pine forests near Beerburrum found no significant increase in interhill erosion due to broadcasting of the bio-solids. Most or all of the sediment was observed to come from mineral soil exposed when a gutter to collect runoff was installed at the downslope ends of the plots. However, there was considerable movement of solutes in runoff from rainfall simulator plots that had received bio-solids--either freshly applied or consolidated bio-solids (that had been broadcast on the plots 6 months prior to the rainfall simulation study and exposed to rain and weathering). Electrical conductivity (EC) of runoff from freshly applied bio-solids was initially high but decreased steadily during the 30 min. rainfall event. Runoff from consolidated bio-solids had lower ECs, though significantly (P<0.05) higher than those of runoff from control plots. Concentrations of nitrate-N and ammonium-N were initially high in runoff from freshly applied bio-solids but decreased rapidly during the rainfall event. In contrast, concentrations of mineral N in runoff from consolidated bio-solids were low throughout the rainfall event. These results indicate a significant risk off-site N pollution if runoff occurs during the first rains following broadcasting of bio-solids. By contrast, concentrations of total phosphorous, copper, and zinc in runoff from both fresh and consolidated bio-solids were relatively high and showed only small decreases during the rainfall event applied. This suggests that bio-solids will contribute significant quantities of these elements to runoff for extended periods after broadcasting. The implications of these findings become important in terms of the timing and method of bio-solids application to soil.

Author(s): J. L. and Karlen Jordahl D. L.
Year: 1996
Title: Comparison of alternative farming systems. III. Soil aggregate stability
Journal: American Journal of Alternative Agriculture
Volume: 8
Pages: 27-33
Doc. #: BIN.SO.LR.3.1
Keywords: alternative farming, farming systems, soil physical properties, soil aggregation, aggregate stability, particle sizes, manure, bio-solids, erosion control
Abstract: Quantitative studies are needed to separate the real and supposed benefits of alternative farming practices. Our objective was to learn how conventional and alternative practices on adjacent farms in central Iowa affected the water stability of soil aggregates. We collected samples of Clarion loam (fine-loamy, mixed, mesic Typic Hapludoll) from adjacent 16 ha fields in fall 1990 and spring 1991. Aggregate stability was determined by wet-sieving and by measuring turbidity of soil-water suspensions. The combined effects of alternative practices resulted in greater water stability of soil aggregates, higher soil organic matter content, and lower bulk density compared with conventional practices. The components of the alternative system that were mainly responsible for these differences were: rotations that included oat and hay crops; ridge-tillage; and additions of 45 Mg/ha of a mixture of animal manure and municipal bio-solids during the first 3 years of each 5 year rotation. The more favorable soil physical conditions, shown by increased water stability of soil aggregates, presumably will improve soil water regimes and reduce long-term soil erosion losses from the alternatively managed fields.

Author(s): L. Metzger Levanon, D., and Mingelgrin, U.
Year: 1987
Title: The effect of sewage sludge on soil structural stability: Microbiological aspects
Journal: Soil Science Society of America Journal
Volume: 51
Pages: 346-351
Doc. #: BIN.SO.LR.3.1; BIN.MI.LR.3.2
Keywords: aggregate stability, bacteria, fungi, carbohydrates, bio-solids, microorganisms, bio-solids, aggregate, wind erosion, microbial biomass, loess, microflora, hyphae, fungi, soil stability
Abstract: The effect of the addition of bio-solids on the content of water-stable aggregates (WSA) in a structureless loessial soil was studied in a 54-d incubation experiment. The changes in the WSA content after addition of 5% bio-solids were characterized by a phase of WSA formation (lasting about 10d at 25˚ C) and a phase of decreasing WSA content leading to a constant WSA level. The first phase was associated with a sharp increase in bacterial and fungal populations, a high rate of CO2 evolution and an increase in the water-soluble carbohydrate (WSC) content. At 25˚ C, the WSA content in the bio-solids-amended soil remained higher than in the unamended soil until the end of incubation. Selective inhibition treatments enabled the assessment of the relative importance of the main microbial groups in the formation of WSA. Fungal activity was best correlated the structural stability in the soil/bio-solids mixtures. Relatively high correlations were found between the WSA level and between both the fungal counts and the water-soluble anthrone-reactive carbohydrate content. This suggests that cementing by fungal carbohydrates and physical entaglement by mycelium may act as binding mechanisms involved in the formation of WSA when bio-solids is applied to soil.
Misc: Division of Soil Residues and Organic Chemistry, Institute of Soils and Water, ARO, The Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel Israel National Council for Research and the German Bundisministerium fur Forschung und Technologie

Author(s): X. and J. M. Alcañiz Sort
Year: 1996
Title: Contribution of sewage sludge to erosion control in the rehabilitation of limestone quarries
Journal: Land Degradation & Development
Volume: 7
Pages: 69-76
Doc. #: BIN.SO.LR.3.1
Keywords: aggregate stability, rainfall simulator, runoff, bio-solids, sheet erosion, soil rehabilitation, splash effect
Abstract: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of high doses of municipal bio-solids on soil aggregation and to assess its value for soil erosion reduction, both under natural and in simulated rainfall conditions. Doses of 200 and 400 Mg ha-1 bio-solids (dry weight) were applied to the soil of experimental plots situated on a 28 degree slope. Two bio-solids application procedures were tested: premixing into the soil before disposal on the slope, and direct application on the soil surface. Sheet erosion was measured by collecting the sediment carried down to a Gerlach trough situated at the base of the plots. Simulated rainfall, with an intensity of 64 mm h-1, was applied to evaluate soil erodibility. When the soil had no vegetation, the erosion measured on plots treated with bio-solids represented less than 10 percent of the erosion from the control plot. Even when the vegetation was well developed, the erosion was also lower in the plots where bio-solids had been applied. In simulated rainfall, the soil loss was inversely proportional to the bio-solids dose, and when bio-solids was applied directly on the soil surface the erosion rates and particle mobilization caused by raindrop impact were minimal. bio-solids amendments increase infiltration rates and improve soil structure, increasing the mean weight diameter of aggregates and their water resistance.

Author(s): C. Henry T. Iivari and R. Chaney
Title: Soil Runoff and Erosion Control
Publisher: University of Washington, U.S. EPA
Doc. #: BIN.SO.ER.1.1
Keywords: bio-solids, soils, runoff, erosion control, Universal Soil Loss Equation
Abstract: It is our judgment that the assessment EPA has made on the impact of soil/bio-solids runoff/erosion is flawed in a number of ways. Some of these include:
* inappropriate use of the USLE model for predicting sediment runoff
* gross errors in assumption of the parameters for input into the USLE model
* failure to incorporate reasonable and existing management practices into assumptions
* flawed estimation of the sediment delivery ratio
* evaluation of inappropriate point of contamination; deposition of fine (organic) particles containing dioxin is unlikely to occur in the stream, but rather in quiet lake-like conditions; this further results in error of use of dissolved dioxin concentration when modeling risk to humans from ingestion of fish.

Author(s): W. Thomas Gallier et al.
Year: 1993
Title: Rx for Rangelands
Journal: Water Environment and Technology
Pages: 57-60
Doc. #: BIN.RC.RA.1.3
Keywords: bio-solids, rangeland applications, semiarid, soil erosion, growth response, soil fertility, wildlife habitat
Abstract: The application of bio-solids to semiarid western rangelands can improve soil fertility, biological productivity, and increase wildlife habitat, without creating negative impacts to the environment or public health.

Numerous application projects are discussed, including: Rio Puerco Watershed, Sevilleta National Wildlife Refuge, Fort Collins (CO), Wolcott (CO), Gunnison (CO), U.S. Air Force Academy, and Hermiston (OR).

Author(s): Charles L. Henry
Year: 1997
Title: Guidelines for use of Composted Bio-solids in the Greenway
Publisher: University of Washington
Doc. #: BIC.FO.AP.4.1
Keywords: composted bio-solids, Mountains to Sound Greenway, regulations/recommendations, organic matter, nutrients, guidelines, water quality, slopes, erosion, runoff, application rates
Abstract: Our interest in the use of compost in the Mountains to Sound Greenway (MTSG) is in helping to accomplish four goals: 1) stabilization of slopes and reduction of erosion, 2) preservation or improvement in water quality, 3) establishment of permanent native vegetation, and 4) renovation of severely compacted areas, such as road beds and landings. Composted bio-solids have characteristics that help accomplish these goals. It can amend the soil both by providing nutrients and by improving soil textural characteristics. Composted bio-solids are being used in the Greenway in new ways and under different conditions from traditional landscape uses. We are developing these guidelines with the goal of maximizing the beneficial effect, while establishing safeguards to protect against adverse environmental impact.

Author(s): Michigan Department of Natural Resources
Title: Composting: A Solid Waste Alternative
Publisher: Michigan Dept. of Natural Resources, Community Assistance Div.
Doc. #: MSC.SP.GE.1.14
Keywords: MSW, yard, process, principles, anaerobic, aerobic, microorganisms, operations, windrow, enclosed, soil, moisture holding, tilth, stabilization, OM, plants, disease, use, erosion, reclamation, landscape, horticulture, economics

Author(s): V. Stahlschmidt
Year: 1985
Title: Heavy metals in sludge, refuse, compost, soils and plants
Publisher: Dano
Doc. #: COC.QU.TR.1.2
Keywords: sewage sludge, MSW, co-compost, product, quality, characterization, contaminants, metals, maturity, soil, plants, uptake, use, agriculture, OM, nutrients, stabilization, erosion
Abstract: This document is an examination of trace metals in bio-solids, MSW and composts with respect to Dano processing plants. Environmental protection and reduction of health risks from pollution of air, water, soil, and food are common preoccupations in the public today and have a great political impact. The bulk of ingested poisonous elements are excreted and are ending up in the bio-solids and efforts must therefore be taken for prevention of pollution of soils and plants by recycling of bio-solids directly or as compost to the soil. The concentration of metals in composted MSW is substantially lower than in bio-solids. Provided that adequate efforts are made to keep the trace elements, notably Cadmium (Cd), Mercury (Hg) and Lead (Pb) away from the circulation through bio-solids and MSW, there are no dangers whatsoever in the use of MSW/bio-solids in agriculture or horticulture.

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